OLYMPIC GAMES

Pindar from Thebes (5th c. BC) composed numerous poems praising great athletes who excelled in Panhellenic Games. His verses lay emphasis in a lyrical manner on the significance of the Olympic Games to the ancient Greeks.

Pindar, Olympian Ode 1*, in honour of Hieron of Syracuse, victor in horse racing.
* Odes. Pindar. Diane Arnson Svarlien. 1990. www.perseus.tufts.edu

Pindar, Olympian Ode 8*, in honour of Alcimedon of Aegina, victor in boys’ wrestling.
* Odes. Pindar. Diane Arnson Svarlien. 1990. www.perseus.tufts.edu

DAMAGETOS DIAGORAS’S SON

As Pausanias describes the votive offerings dedicated by athletes in the Sanctuary of Olympia, he beholds the statues of Damagetos and the Diagoridae family. From his text we extract significant pieces of information on the eminent family that made history in the Olympics.

θεασάμενος δὲ καὶ τούτους ἐπὶ τῶν Ῥοδίων ἀθλητῶν ἀφίξῃ τὰς εἰκόνας, Διαγόραν καὶ τὸ ἐκείνου γένος: οἱ δὲ συνεχεῖς τε ἀλλήλοις καὶ ἐν κόσμῳ τοιῷδε ἀνέκειντο, Ἀκουσίλαος μὲν λαβὼν πυγμῆς ἐν ἀνδράσι στέφανον, Δωριεὺς δὲ ὁ νεώτατος παγκρατίῳ νικήσας Ὀλυμπιάσιν ἐφεξῆς τρισί. πρότερον δὲ ἔτι τοῦ Δωριέως ἐκράτησε καὶ Δαμάγητος τοὺς ἐσελθόντας ἐς τὸ παγκράτιον. οὗτοι μὲν ἀδελφοί τέ εἰσι καὶ Διαγόρου παῖδες, ἐπὶ δὲ αὐτοῖς κεῖται καὶ ὁ Διαγόρας, πυγμῆς ἐν ἀνδράσιν ἀνελόμενος νίκην: τοῦ Διαγόρου δὲ τὴν εἰκόνα Μεγαρεὺς εἰργάσατο Καλλικλῆς Θεοκόσμου τοῦ ποιήσαντος τὸ ἄγαλμα ἐν Μεγάροις τοῦ Διός.

«When you have looked at these also you will reach the statues of the Rhodian athletes, Diagoras and his family. These were dedicated one after the other in the following order. Acusilaus, who received a crown for boxing in the men's class; Dorieus, the youngest, who won the pancratium at Olympia on three successive occasions. Even before Dorieus, Damagetus beat all those who had entered for the pancratium. These were brothers, being sons of Diagoras, and by them is set up also a statue of Diagoras himself, who won a victory for boxing in the men's class. The statue of Diagoras was made by the Megarian Callicles, the son of the Theocosmus who made the image of Zeus at Megara.»

Then follows the story of Kallipateira, Diagoras’s daughter, the sole woman ever to attend the Games.

Διαγόρου δὲ καὶ οἱ τῶν θυγατέρων παῖδες πύξ τε ἤσκησαν καὶ ἔσχον Ὀλυμπικὰς νίκας, ἐν μὲν ἀνδράσιν Εὐκλῆς Καλλιάνακτός τε ὢν καὶ Καλλιπατείρας τῆς Διαγόρου, Πεισίροδος δὲ ἐν παισίν, ὃν ἡ μήτηρ ἀνδρὸς ἐπιθεμένη γυμναστοῦ σχῆμα ἐπὶ τῶν Ὀλυμπίων αὐτὴ τὸν ἀγῶνα ἤγαγεν: οὗτος δὲ ὁ Πεισίροδος καὶ ἐν τῇ Ἄλτει παρὰ τῆς μητρὸς τὸν πατέρα ἕστηκε.

«The sons too of the daughters of Diagoras practised boxing and won Olympic victories: in the men's class Eucles, son of Callianax and Callipateira, daughter of Diagoras; in the boys' class Peisirodus, whose mother dressed herself as a man and a trainer, and took her son herself to the Olympic games. This Peisirodus is one of the statues in the Altis, and stands by the father of his mother.»

Pausanias’s account culminates in his narrative of the triumph of Akousilaos and Damagetos and the glorification of their father Diagoras. For the ancient Greeks, this scene is synonymous with utmost success and felicity.

Διαγόραν δὲ καὶ ὁμοῦ τοῖς παισὶν Ἀκουσιλάῳ καὶ Δαμαγήτῳ λέγουσιν ἐς Ὀλυμπίαν ἐλθεῖν: νικήσαντες δὲ οἱ νεανίσκοι διὰ τῆς πανηγύρεως τὸν πατέρα ἔφερον βαλλόμενόν τε ὑπὸ τῶν Ἑλλήνων ἄνθεσι καὶ εὐδαίμονα ἐπὶ τοῖς παισὶ καλούμενον.

«The story goes that Diagoras came to Olympia in the company of his sons Acusilaus and Damagetus. The youths on defeating their father proceeded to carry him through the crowd, while the Greeks pelted him with flowers and congratulated him on his sons.».

Pausanias VI. 7, 1–3. Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. www.perseus.tufts.edu

THE BEGINNING

In Book XXIII of the Iliad, Achilles organizes athletic contests in honour of his deceased friend Patroklos. He offers rich prizes, such as tripods, horses and female slaves, for a series of events (chariot race, boxing, wrestling, dromos, discus throw). Bear in mind that the Homeric epics were composed in the 8th c. BC, a time which roughly coincides with the conventional commencement of the Olympic Games.

The first event involved the spectacular chariot races (259–270):

νηῶν δ᾽ ἔκφερ᾽ ἄεθλα λέβητάς τε τρίποδάς τε
260 ἵππους θ᾽ ἡμιόνους τε βοῶν τ᾽ ἴφθιμα κάρηνα,
ἠδὲ γυναῖκας ἐϋζώνους πολιόν τε σίδηρον.
ἱππεῦσιν μὲν πρῶτα ποδώκεσιν ἀγλά᾽ ἄεθλα
θῆκε γυναῖκα ἄγεσθαι ἀμύμονα ἔργα ἰδυῖαν
καὶ τρίποδ᾽ ὠτώεντα δυωκαιεικοσίμετρον
ῷ πρώτῳ· ἀτὰρ αὖ τῷ δευτέρῳ ἵππον ἔθηκεν
ἑξέτε᾽ ἀδμήτην βρέφος ἡμίονον κυέουσαν·
αὐτὰρ τῷ τριτάτῳ ἄπυρον κατέθηκε λέβητα
καλὸν τέσσαρα μέτρα κεχανδότα λευκὸν ἔτ᾽ αὔτως·
τῷ δὲ τετάρτῳ θῆκε δύω χρυσοῖο τάλαντα,
270 πέμπτῳ δ᾽ ἀμφίθετον φιάλην ἀπύρωτον ἔθηκε.

« … and from his ships brought forth prizes; cauldrons and tripods and horses and mules and strong oxen and fair-girdled women and grey iron. For swift charioteers first he set forth goodly prizes, a woman to lead away, one skilled in goodly handiwork, and an eared tripod of two and twenty measures for him that should be first; and for the second he appointed a mare of six years, unbroken, with a mule foal in her womb; and for the third he set forth a cauldron untouched of fire, a fair cauldron that held four measures, white even as the first; and for the fourth he appointed two talents of gold; and for the fifth a two-handled urn, yet untouched of fire.»

Then followed boxing (653-663):

αὐτὰρ ὃ πυγμαχίης ἀλεγεινῆς θῆκεν ἄεθλα·
ἡμίονον ταλαεργὸν ἄγων κατέδησ᾽ ἐν ἀγῶνι
ἑξέτε᾽ ἀδμήτην, ἥ τ᾽ ἀλγίστη δαμάσασθαι·
τῷ δ᾽ ἄρα νικηθέντι τίθει δέπας ἀμφικύπελλον.
στῆ δ᾽ ὀρθὸς καὶ μῦθον ἐν Ἀργείοισιν ἔειπεν·
Ἀτρεΐδη τε καὶ ἄλλοι ἐϋκνήμιδες Ἀχαιοὶ
ἄνδρε δύω περὶ τῶνδε κελεύομεν, ὥ περ ἀρίστω,
660 πὺξ μάλ᾽ ἀνασχομένω πεπληγέμεν· ᾧ δέ κ᾽ Ἀπόλλων
δώῃ καμμονίην, γνώωσι δὲ πάντες Ἀχαιοί,
ἡμίονον ταλαεργὸν ἄγων κλισίην δὲ νεέσθω·
αὐτὰρ ὃ νικηθεὶς δέπας οἴσεται ἀμφικύπελλον.

«Then set he forth prizes for grievous boxing. A sturdy mule he brought and tethered in the place of gathering, a mule of six years, unbroken, the which is hardest of all to break; and for him that should be worsted he appointed a two-handled cup. Then he stood up, and spake among the Argives, saying: “Son of Atreus, and ye other well-greaved Achaeans, for these prizes we invite warriors twain, the best there are, to lift up their hands and box amain. Let him to whom Apollo shall grant strength to endure, and all the Achaeans have knowledge thereof, go his way to his hut leading the sturdy mule; but he that is worsted shall bear as his prize the two-handled cup.”»

Achilles then staged the wrestling competition (700–708):

Πηλεΐδης δ᾽ αἶψ᾽ ἄλλα κατὰ τρίτα θῆκεν ἄεθλα
δεικνύμενος Δαναοῖσι παλαισμοσύνης ἀλεγεινῆς,
τῷ μὲν νικήσαντι μέγαν τρίποδ᾽ ἐμπυριβήτην,
τὸν δὲ δυωδεκάβοιον ἐνὶ σφίσι τῖον Ἀχαιοί·
ἀνδρὶ δὲ νικηθέντι γυναῖκ᾽ ἐς μέσσον ἔθηκε,
πολλὰ δ᾽ ἐπίστατο ἔργα, τίον δέ ἑ τεσσαράβοιον.
στῆ δ᾽ ὀρθὸς καὶ μῦθον ἐν Ἀργείοισιν ἔειπεν·
ὄρνυσθ᾽ οἳ καὶ τούτου ἀέθλου πειρήσεσθον.

«Then the son of Peleus forthwith ordained in the sight of the Danaans other prizes for a third contest, even for toilsome wrestling — for him that should win, a great tripod to stand upon the fire, that the Achaeans prized amongst them at the worth of twelve oxen; and for him that should be worsted he set in the midst a woman of manifold skill in handiwork, and they prized her at the worth of four oxen. And he stood up and spake among the Argives saying: “Up now, ye twain that will make essay likewise in this contest.”»

The next event was the footrace (740–751)::

Πηλεΐδης δ᾽ αἶψ᾽ ἄλλα τίθει ταχυτῆτος ἄεθλα
ἀργύρεον κρητῆρα τετυγμένον· ἓξ δ᾽ ἄρα μέτρα
χάνδανεν, αὐτὰρ κάλλει ἐνίκα πᾶσαν ἐπ᾽ αἶαν
πολλόν, ἐπεὶ Σιδόνες πολυδαίδαλοι εὖ ἤσκησαν,
Φοίνικες δ᾽ ἄγον ἄνδρες ἐπ᾽ ἠεροειδέα πόντον,
στῆσαν δ᾽ ἐν λιμένεσσι, Θόαντι δὲ δῶρον ἔδωκαν·
υἷος δὲ Πριάμοιο Λυκάονος ὦνον ἔδωκε
Πατρόκλῳ ἥρωϊ Ἰησονίδης Εὔνηος.
καὶ τὸν Ἀχιλλεὺς θῆκεν ἄεθλον οὗ ἑτάροιο,
ὅς τις ἐλαφρότατος ποσσὶ κραιπνοῖσι πέλοιτο·
750 δευτέρῳ αὖ βοῦν θῆκε μέγαν καὶ πίονα δημῷ,
ἡμιτάλαντον δὲ χρυσοῦ λοισθήϊ᾽ ἔθηκε.

«Then the son of Peleus straightway set forth other prizes for fleetness of foot: a mixing bowl of silver, richly wrought; six measures it held, and in beauty it was far the goodliest in all the earth, seeing that Sidonians, well skilled in deft handiwork, had wrought it cunningly, and men of the Phoenicians brought it over the murky deep, and landed it in harbour, and gave it as a gift to Thoas; and as a ransom for Lycaon, son of Priam, Jason's son Euneos gave it to the warrior Patroclus. This bowl did Achilles set forth as a prize in honour of his comrade, even for him whoso should prove fleetest in speed of foot. For the second again he set an ox great and rich with fat; and a half-talent in gold he appointed for the last.»

Finally, discus throw was held (826–835):

αὐτὰρ Πηλεΐδης θῆκεν σόλον αὐτοχόωνον
ὃν πρὶν μὲν ῥίπτασκε μέγα σθένος Ἠετίωνος·
ἀλλ᾽ ἤτοι τὸν ἔπεφνε ποδάρκης δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς,
τὸν δ᾽ ἄγετ᾽ ἐν νήεσσι σὺν ἄλλοισι κτεάτεσσι.
830 στῆ δ᾽ ὀρθὸς καὶ μῦθον ἐν Ἀργείοισιν ἔειπεν·
ὄρνυσθ᾽ οἳ καὶ τούτου ἀέθλου πειρήσεσθε.
εἴ οἱ καὶ μάλα πολλὸν ἀπόπροθι πίονες ἀγροί,
ἕξει μιν καὶ πέντε περιπλομένους ἐνιαυτοὺς
χρεώμενος· οὐ μὲν γάρ οἱ ἀτεμβόμενός γε σιδήρου
ποιμὴν οὐδ᾽ ἀροτὴρ εἶσ᾽ ἐς πόλιν, ἀλλὰ παρέξει.

«Then the son of Peleus set forth a mass of rough-cast iron, which of old the mighty strength of Eëtion was wont to hurl; but him had swift-footed goodly Achilles slain, and bare this away on his ships with his other possessions. And he stood up, and spake among the Argives, saying: “Up now, ye that will make essay likewise in this contest. Though his rich fields lie very far remote, the winner hereof will have it five revolving years to serve his need; for not through lack of iron will his shepherd or ploughman fare to the city; nay, this will supply them.” »

Homer. The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. www.perseus.tufts.edu

The Athenian orator Isocrates (4th c. BC) describes with great admiration the power of the Panhellenic Games that succeed, out of respect for the divine, to inspire collaboration between the cities, enforce the cessation of hostilities and avert localism, thereby forging a spirit of unity and concord.

Τῶν τοίνυν τὰς πανηγύρεις καταστησάντων δικαίως ἐπαινουμένων ὅτι τοιοῦτον ἔθος ἡμῖν παρέδοσαν ὥστε σπεισαμένους καὶ τὰς ἔχθρας τὰς ἐνεστηκυίας διαλυσαμένους συνελθεῖν εἰς ταὐτόν, καὶ μετὰ ταῦτ᾽ εὐχὰς καὶ θυσίας κοινὰς ποιησαμένους ἀναμνησθῆναι μὲν τῆς συγγενείας τῆς πρὸς ἀλλήλους ὑπαρχούσης, εὐμενεστέρως δ᾽ εἰς τὸν λοιπὸν χρόνον διατεθῆναι πρὸς ἡμᾶς αὐτούς, καὶ τάς τε παλαιὰς ξενίας ἀνανεώσασθαι καὶ καινὰς ἑτέρας ποιήσασθαι.

Now the founders of our great festivals are justly praised for handing down to us a custom by which, having proclaimed a truce and resolved our pending quarrels, we come together in one place, where, as we make our prayers and sacrifices in common, we are reminded of the kinship which exists among us and are made to feel more kindly towards each other for the future, reviving our old friendships and establishing new ties.

Isocrates. Panegyricus, 43. Isocrates with an English Translation in three volumes, by George Norlin, Ph.D., LL.D. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1980. www.perseus.tufts.edu

MYTHOLOGY

Who established the Olympic Games? The traveller Pausanias speaks about the various traditions associated with their founding by Idaean Heracles and Zeus. Of particular interest is his reference to the wild olive wreath, the prize for which athletes competed with each other.

[7.7] τὸν δὲ Ἡρακλέα παίζοντα--εἶναι γὰρ δὴ αὐτὸν πρεσβύτατον ἡλικίᾳ--συμβαλεῖν τοὺς ἀδελφοὺς ἐς ἅμιλλαν δρόμου καὶ τὸν νικήσαντα ἐξ αὐτῶν κλάδῳ στεφανῶσαι κοτίνου: παρεῖναι δὲ αὐτοῖς πολὺν δή τι οὕτω τὸν κότινον ὡς τὰ χλωρὰ ἔτι τῶν φύλλων ὑπεστρῶσθαι σφᾶς καθεύδοντας. κομισθῆναι δὲ ἐκ τῆς Ὑπερβορέων γῆς τὸν κότινόν φασιν ὑπὸ τοῦ Ἡρακλέους ἐς Ἕλληνας, εἶναι δὲ ἀνθρώπους οἳ ὑπὲρ τὸν ἄνεμον οἰκοῦσι τὸν Βορέαν. ....[7.9] Ἡρακλεῖ οὖν πρόσεστι τῷ Ἰδαίῳ δόξα τὸν τότε ἀγῶνα διαθεῖναι πρώτῳ καὶ Ὀλύμπια ὄνομα θέσθαι: διὰ πέμπτου οὖν ἔτους αὐτὸν κατεστήσατο ἄγεσθαι, ὅτι αὐτός τε καὶ οἱ ἀδελφοὶ πέντε ἦσαν ἀριθμόν. [7.10] Δία δὴ οἱ μὲν ἐνταῦθα παλαῖσαι καὶ αὐτῷ Κρόνῳ περὶ τῆς ἀρχῆς, οἱ δὲ ἐπὶ κατειργασμένῳ ἀγωνοθετῆσαί φασιν αὐτόν: νικῆσαι δὲ ἄλλοι τε λέγονται καὶ ὅτι Ἀπόλλων παραδράμοι μὲν ἐρίζοντα Ἑρμῆν, κρατήσαι δὲ Ἄρεως πυγμῇ. τούτου δὲ ἕνεκα καὶ τὸ αὔλημα τὸ Πυθικόν φασι τῷ πηδήματι ἐπεισαχθῆναι τῶν πεντάθλων, ὡς τὸ μὲν ἱερὸν τοῦ Ἀπόλλωνος τὸ αὔλημα ὄν, τὸν Ἀπόλλωνα δὲ ἀνῃρημένον Ὀλυμπικὰς νίκας.

[V. 7.7.] Heracles, being the eldest, matched his brothers, as a game, in a running-race, and crowned the winner with a branch of wild olive, of which they had such a copious supply that they slept on heaps of its leaves while still green. It is said to have been introduced into Greece by Heracles from the land of the Hyperboreans, men living beyond the home of the North Wind.
[V. 7.9] Heracles of Ida, therefore, has the reputation of being the first to have held, on the occasion I mentioned, the games, and to have called them Olympic. So he established the custom of holding them every fifth year, because he and his brothers were five in number.
[V. 7.10] Now some say that Zeus wrestled here with Cronus himself for the throne, while others say that he held the games in honor of his victory over Cronus. The record of victors include Apollo, who outran Hermes and beat Ares at boxing. It is for this reason, they say, that the Pythian flute-song is played while the competitors in the pentathlum are jumping; for the flute-song is sacred to Apollo, and Apollo won Olympic victories.

Pausanias V.7.7–10. Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. www.perseus.tufts.edu

Pindar also refers in his verses to the founding of the Olympic Games by Zeus and Heracles.

Ἀναξιφόρμιγγες ὕμνοι, [στρ. α]
τίνα θεόν, τίν᾽ ἥρωα, τίνα δ᾽ ἄνδρα κελαδήσομεν;
ἤτοι Πίσα μὲν Διός· Ὀλυμπιάδα
δ᾽ ἔστασεν Ἡρακλέης
ἀκρόθινα πολέμου.

Songs, rulers of the lyre,
what god, what hero, what man shall we celebrate?
Indeed, Pisa belongs to Zeus; and Heracles established the Olympic festival,
as the finest trophy of battle

Pindar, Olympian Ode 2, in honour of Theron of Acragas, victor in chariot race.

Odes. Pindar. Diane Arnson Svarlien. 1990. www.perseus.tufts.edu

The historian Diodorus Siculus, in the 1st c. BC, agrees with the version of Heracles as the founder of the Games in honour of his father Zeus.

Τελέσας δὲ τοῦτον τὸν ἆθλον τὸν Ὀλυμπικὸν ἀγῶνα συνεστήσατο, κάλλιστον τῶν τόπων πρὸς τηλικαύτην πανήγυριν προκρίνας τὸ παρὰ τὸν Ἀλφειὸν ποταμὸν πεδίον, ἐν ᾧ τὸν ἀγῶνα τοῦτον τῷ Διὶ τῷ πατρίῳ καθιέρωσε. στεφανίτην δ´ αὐτὸν ἐποίησεν, ὅτι καὶ αὐτὸς εὐηργέτησε τὸ γένος τῶν ἀνθρώπων οὐδένα λαβὼν μισθόν. τὰ δ´ ἀθλήματα πάντα αὐτὸς ἀδηρίτως ἐνίκησε, μηδενὸς τολμήσαντος αὐτῷ συγκριθῆναι διὰ τὴν ὑπερβολὴν τῆς ἀρετῆς, καίπερ τῶν ἀθλημάτων ἐναντίων ἀλλήλοις ὄντων· τὸν γὰρ πύκτην ἢ παγκρατιαστὴν τοῦ σταδιέως δύσκολον περιγενέσθαι, καὶ πάλιν τὸν ἐν τοῖς κούφοις ἀθλήμασι πρωτεύοντα καταγωνίσασθαι τοὺς ἐν τοῖς βαρέσιν ὑπερέχοντας δυσχερὲς κατανοῆσαι. διόπερ εἰκότως ἐγένετο τιμιώτατος ἁπάντων τῶν ἀγώνων οὗτος, τὴν ἀρχὴν ἀπ´ ἀγαθοῦ λαβών.

After the performance of this Labour [the Cretan Bull] Heracles established the Olympic Games, having selected for so great a festival the most beautiful of places, which was the plain lying along the banks of the Alpheius river, where he dedicated these Games to Zeus the Father. And he stipulated that the prize in them should be only a crown, since he himself had conferred benefits upon the race of men without receiving any monetary reward. All the contests were won by him without opposition by anyone else, since no one was bold enough to contend with him because of his exceeding prowess. And yet the contests are very different one from another, since it is hard for a boxer or one who enters for the "Pankration" to defeat a man who runs the "stadion", and equally difficult for the man who wins first place in the light contests to wear down those who excel in the heavy. Consequently, it was fitting that of all Games the Olympic should be the one most honoured, since they were instituted by a noble man.

Diodorus Siculus, Book IV.14.1–2.

Loeb Classical Library, 12 volumes, Greek texts and facing English translation: Harvard University Press, 1933 thru 1967. Translation by C. H. Oldfather thru Volume 6; www.penelope.uchicago.edu

In Pindar’s verses, the tradition that ascribes the establishment of the Games to Pelops expressing his gratitude for his victory against his rival Oinomaos in a chariot race appears equally solid.

ἀλλὰ νῦν ἑκαταβόλων Μοισᾶν ἀπὸ τόξων
Δία τε φοινικοστερόπαν σεμνόν τ᾽ ἐπίνειμαι
ἀκρωτήριον Ἄλιδος
τοιοῖσδε βέλεσσιν,
τὸ δή ποτε Λυδὸς ἥρως Πέλοψ
ἐξάρατο κάλλιστον ἕδνον Ἱπποδαμείας·

But now, from the bow of the Muses who,
shooting from afar, send a shower of such arrows of song
as these on Zeus of the red lightning-bolt
and on the sacred height of Elis,
which once the Lydian hero Pelops
won as the very fine dowry of Hippodameia

Pindar, Olympian Ode 9, in honour of Epharmostos of Opus, victor in wrestling.

And in a more detailed version:

τὸν μὲν ἀγάλλων θεός
ἔδωκεν δίφρον τε χρύσεον πτεροῖ-
σίν τ᾽ ἀκάμαντας ἵππους.
ἕλεν δ᾽ Οἰνομάου βίαν παρθένον τε σύνευνον·
ἔτεκε λαγέτας ἓξ ἀρεταῖσι μεμαότας υἱούς.
90 νῦν δ᾽ ἐν αἱμακουρίαις
ἀγλααῖσι μέμικται,
Ἀλφεοῦ πόρῳ κλιθείς,
τύμβον ἀμφίπολον ἔχων πολυξενω-
τάτῳ παρὰ βωμῷ· τὸ δὲ κλέος
τηλόθεν δέδορκε τᾶν Ὀλυμπιάδων ἐν δρόμοις
Πέλοπος, ἵνα ταχυτὰς ποδῶν ἐρίζεται
ἀκμαί τ᾽ ἰσχύος θρασύπονοι·
ὁ νικῶν δὲ λοιπὸν ἀμφὶ βίοτον
ἔχει μελιτόεσσαν εὐδίαν

ἀέθλων γ᾽ ἕνεκεν· τὸ δ᾽ αἰεὶ παράμερον ἐσλόν [ἀντ. δ]
ὕπατον ἔρχεται παντὶ βροτῶν.

Honouring him, the god gave him a golden chariot, and horses with untiring wings. He overcame the might of Oenomaus, and took the girl as his bride. She bore six sons, leaders of the people eager for excellence. Now he has a share in splendid blood-sacrifices, resting beside the ford of the Alpheus, where he has his attendant tomb beside the altar that is thronged with many visitors. The fame of Pelops shines from afar in the races of the Olympic festivals, where there are contests for swiftness of foot, and the bold heights of toiling strength. A victor throughout the rest of his life enjoys honeyed calm, so far as contests can bestow it.

Pindar, Olympian Ode 1, in honour of Hieron of Syracuse, victor in horse racing.

Odes. Pindar. Diane Arnson Svarlien. 1990. www.perseus.tufts.edu

OLYMPIC IDEALS

The historian Herodotus (5th c. BC) summarizes in the most vivid manner the moral value of the Games for the ancient Greeks, seen through the eyes of the enemy. Shortly before the battle of Thermopylae, the Persians were astonished to find out that the Greeks compete in the Games for an olive wreath instead of money.

ἧκον δέ σφι αὐτόμολοι ἄνδρες ἀπ᾽ Ἀρκαδίης ὀλίγοι τινές, βίου τε δεόμενοι καὶ ἐνεργοὶ βουλόμενοι εἶναι. ἄγοντες δὲ τούτους ἐς ὄψιν τὴν βασιλέος ἐπυνθάνοντο οἱ Πέρσαι περὶ τῶν Ἑλλήνων τί ποιέοιεν· εἷς δέ τις πρὸ πάντων ἦν ὁ εἰρωτῶν αὐτοὺς ταῦτα. οἱ δέ σφι ἔλεγον ὡς Ὀλύμπια ἄγουσι καὶ θεωρέοιεν ἀγῶνα γυμνικὸν καὶ ἱππικόν. ὁ δὲ ἐπείρετο ὅ τι [τὸ ἄεθλον] εἴη σφι κείμενον περὶ ὅτευ ἀγωνίζονται· οἱ δὲ εἶπον τῆς ἐλαίης τὸν διδόμενον στέφανον. ἐνθαῦτα εἴπας γνώμην γενναιοτάτην Τριτανταίχμης ὁ Ἀρταβάνου δειλίην ὦφλε πρὸς βασιλέος. πυνθανόμενος γὰρ τὸ ἄεθλον ἐὸν στέφανον ἀλλ᾽ οὐ χρήματα, οὔτε ἠνέσχετο σιγῶν εἶπέ τε ἐς πάντας τάδε· Παπαί, Μαρδόνιε, κοίους ἐπ᾽ ἄνδρας ἤγαγες μαχησομένους ἡμέας, οἳ οὐ περὶ χρημάτων τὸν ἀγῶνα ποιεῦνται ἀλλὰ περὶ ἀρετῆς.

There had come to them a few deserters, men of Arcadia, lacking a livelihood and desirous to find some service. Bringing these men into the king's presence, the Persians inquired of them what the Greeks were doing, there being one who put this question in the name of all. When the Arcadians told them that the Greeks were holding the Olympic festival and viewing sports and horseraces, the Persian asked what was the prize offered, for which they contended. They told him of the crown of olive that was given to the victor. Then Tigranes son of Artabanus uttered a most noble saying (but the king deemed him a coward for it); when he heard that the prize was not money but a crown, he could not hold his peace, but cried, “Good heavens, Mardonius, what kind of men are these that you have pitted us against? It is not for money they contend but for glory of achievement!”

Herodotus, Histories 8.26.1–3 Herodotus, with an English translation by A. D. Godley. Cambridge. Harvard University Press. 1920. www.perseus.tufts.edu

SACRED TRUCE

With reference to the institution of the Games in the 8th c. BC by Iphitos, and the Sacred Truce that was a precondition for their staging, Pausanias proves, once more, a valuable source.

χρόνῳ δὲ ὕστερον Ἴφιτος, γένος μὲν ὢν ἀπὸ Ὀξύλου, ἡλικίαν δὲ κατὰ Λυκοῦργον τὸν γράψαντα Λακεδαιμονίοις τοὺς νόμους, τὸν ἀγῶνα διέθηκεν ἐν Ὀλυμπίᾳ πανήγυρίν τε Ὀλυμπικὴν αὖθις ἐξ ἀρχῆς καὶ ἐκεχειρίαν κατεστήσατο, ἐκλιπόντα ἐπὶ χρόνον ὁπόσος δὴ οὗτος ἦν: αἰτίαν δὲ δι' ἥντινα ἐξέλιπε τὰ Ὀλύμπια, ἐν τοῖς ἔχουσιν ἐς Ὀλυμπίαν τοῦ λόγου δηλώσω. [4.6] τῷ δὲ Ἰφίτῳ, φθειρομένης τότε δὴ μάλιστα τῆς Ἑλλάδος ὑπὸ ἐμφυλίων στάσεων καὶ ὑπὸ νόσου λοιμώδους, ἐπῆλθεν αἰτῆσαι τὸν ἐν Δελφοῖς θεὸν λύσιν τῶν κακῶν: καί οἱ προσταχθῆναί φασιν ὑπὸ τῆς Πυθίας ὡς αὐτόν τε Ἴφιτον δέοι καὶ Ἠλείους τὸν Ὀλυμπικὸν ἀγῶνα ἀνανεώσασθαι.

[4.5] Later on Iphitus, of the line of Oxylus and contemporary with Lycurgus, who drew up the code of laws for the Lacedaemonians, arranged the games at Olympia and re-established afresh the Olympic festival and truce, after an interruption of uncertain length. The reason for this interruption I will set forth when my narrative deals with Olympia.
[4.6] At this time Greece was grievously worn by internal strife and plague, and it occurred to Iphitus to ask the god at Delphi for deliverance from these evils. The story goes that the Pythian priestess ordained that Iphitus himself and the Eleans must renew the Olympic games.

Pausanias V. 4.5–6 Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. www.perseus.tufts.edu

τὰς θύρας δὲ ἐσιόντι τὰς χαλκᾶς, ἔστιν ἐν δεξιᾷ πρὸ τοῦ κίονος Ἴφιτος ὑπὸ γυναικὸς στεφανούμενος Ἐκεχειρίας, ὡς τὸ ἐλεγεῖον τὸ ἐπ' αὐτοῖς φησιν. ἑστήκασι δὲ καὶ ἐντὸς τοῦ ναοῦ κίονες, καὶ στοαί τε ἔνδον ὑπερῷοι καὶ πρόσοδος δι' αὐτῶν ἐπὶ τὸ ἄγαλμά ἐστι. πεποίηται δὲ καὶ ἄνοδος ἐπὶ τὸν ὄροφον σκολιά

As you enter the bronze doors you see on the right, before the pillar, Iphitus being crowned by a woman, Ececheiria (Truce), as the elegiac couplet on the statue says. Within the temple stand pillars, and inside also are porticoes above, with an approach through them to the image. There has also been constructed a winding ascent to the roof.

Pausanias V. 10.10. Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. www.perseus.tufts.edu

ἔστι δὲ ἐνταῦθα καὶ ἄλλα ἀναθήματα, κλίνη τε μέγεθος οὐ μεγάλη, τὰ πολλὰ ἐλέφαντι κεκοσμημένη, καὶ ὁ Ἰφίτου δίσκος καὶ τράπεζα ἐφ' ἧς προτίθενται τοῖς νικῶσιν οἱ στέφανοι. τὴν μὲν δὴ Ἱπποδαμείας λέγουσιν εἶναι παίγνιον: ὁ δὲ τοῦ Ἰφίτου δίσκος τὴν ἐκεχειρίαν, ἣν ἐπὶ τοῖς Ὀλυμπίοις ἐπαγγέλλουσιν Ἠλεῖοι, ταύτην οὐκ ἐς εὐθὺ ἔχει γεγραμμένην, ἀλλὰ ἐς κύκλου σχῆμα περίεισιν ἐπὶ τῷ δίσκῳ τὰ γράμματα.

There are here [at the Heraion] other offerings also: a couch of no great size and for the most part adorned with ivory; the quoit of Iphitus; a table on which are set out the crowns for the victors. The couch is said to have been a toy of Hippodameia. The quoit of Iphitus has inscribed upon it the truce which the Eleans proclaim at the Olympic festivals; the inscription is not written in a straight line, but the letters run in a circle round the quoit.

Pausanias V.20.1 Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. www.perseus.tufts.edu

FAIR PLAY

Before the commencement of the Games, the athletes as well as their escorts swore an oath to compete fairly, abiding by the rules. According to the account of Pausanias, the oath was taken by the athletes and their companions at the Bouleuterion, next to the statue of Zeus Horkios (keeper of oaths), stepping on the severed genitals of a wild boar (tomia).

ὁ δὲ ἐν τῷ βουλευτηρίῳ πάντων ὁπόσα ἀγάλματα Διὸς μάλιστα ἐς ἔκπληξιν ἀδίκων ἀνδρῶν πεποίηται· ἐπίκλησις μὲν Ὅρκιός ἐστιν αὐτῷ, ἔχει δὲ ἐν ἑκατέρᾳ κεραυνὸν χειρί. παρὰ τούτῳ καθέστηκε τοῖς ἀθληταῖς καὶ πατράσιν αὐτῶν καὶ ἀδελφοῖς, ἔτι δὲ γυμνασταῖς ἐπὶ κάπρου κατόμνυσθαι τομίων, μηδὲν ἐς τὸν Ὀλυμπίων ἀγῶνα ἔσεσθαι παρ' αὐτῶν κακούργημα. οἱ δὲ ἄνδρες οἱ ἀθληταὶ καὶ τόδε ἔτι προσκατόμνυνται, δέκα ἐφεξῆς μηνῶν ἀπηκριβῶσθαί σφισι τὰ πάντα ἐς ἄσκησιν. ὀμνύουσι δὲ καὶ ὅσοι τοὺς παῖδας ἢ τῶν ἵππων τῶν ἀγωνιζομένων τοὺς πώλους κρίνουσιν, ἐπὶ δικαίῳ καὶ ἄνευ δώρων ποιεῖσθαι κρίσιν, καὶ τὰ ἐς τὸν δοκιμαζόμενόν τε καὶ μή, φυλάξειν καὶ ταῦτα ἐν ἀποῤῥήτῳ.

But the Zeus in the Council Chamber is of all the images of Zeus the one most likely to strike terror into the hearts of sinners. He is surnamed Oath-god, and in each hand he holds a thunderbolt. Beside this image it is the custom for athletes, their fathers and their brothers, as well as their trainers, to swear an oath upon slices of boar's flesh that in nothing will they sin against the Olympic games. The athletes take this further oath also, that for ten successive months they have strictly followed the regulations for training.

An oath is also taken by those who examine the boys, or the foals entering for races, that they will decide fairly and without taking bribes, and that they will keep secret what they learn about a candidate, whether accepted or not.

Pausanias V. 24.9–10. Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. www.perseus.tufts.edu

As for the offenders, their name was forever stigmatized being inscribed on the bronze Zannes.

ἰόντι γὰρ ἐπὶ τὸ στάδιον τὴν ὁδὸν τὴν ἀπὸ τοῦ Μητρῴου, ἔστιν ἐν ἀριστερᾷ κατὰ τὸ πέρας τοῦ ὄρους τοῦ Κρονίου λίθου τε πρὸς αὐτῷ τῷ ὄρει κρηπὶς καὶ ἀναβασμοὶ δι' αὐτῆς: πρὸς δὲ τῇ κρηπῖδι ἀγάλματα Διὸς ἀνάκειται χαλκᾶ. ταῦτα ἐποιήθη μὲν ἀπὸ χρημάτων ἐπιβληθείσης ἀθληταῖς ζημίας ὑβρίσασιν ἐς τὸν ἀγῶνα, καλοῦνται δὲ ὑπὸ τῶν ἐπιχωρίων Ζᾶνες. πρῶτοι δὲ ἀριθμὸν ἓξ ἐπὶ τῆς ὀγδόης ἔστησαν καὶ ἐνενηκοστῆς Ὀλυμπιάδος: Εὔπωλος γὰρ Θεσσαλὸς χρήμασι διέφθειρε τοὺς ἐλθόντας τῶν πυκτῶν

As you go to the stadium along the road from the Metroon, there is on the left at the bottom of Mount Cronius a platform of stone, right by the very mountain, with steps through it. By the platform have been set up bronze images of Zeus. These have been made from the fines inflicted on athletes who have wantonly broken the rules of the contests, and they are called Zanes (figures of Zeus) by the natives.

The first, six in number, were set up in the ninety-eighth Olympiad. For Eupolus of Thessaly bribed the boxers who entered the competition, …

Pausanias V. 24.9–10. Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. www.perseus.tufts.edu

BEAUTIFUL AND VIRTUOUS

For the ancient Greeks, bodily exercise and mind elevation were interrelated concepts. The Athenian philosopher Plato expounds this view in the Republic.

ἐμοὶ μὲν γὰρ οὐ φαίνεται, ὃ ἂν χρηστὸν ᾖ σῶμα, τοῦτο τῇ αὑτοῦ ἀρετῇ ψυχὴν ἀγαθὴν ποιεῖν, ἀλλὰ τοὐναντίον ψυχὴ ἀγαθὴ τῇ αὑτῆς ἀρετῇ σῶμα παρέχειν ὡς οἷόν τε βέλτιστον.

For I, for my part, do not believe that a sound body by its excellence makes the soul good, but on the contrary that a good soul by its virtue renders the body the best that is possible.

Plato, Republic Book III.403d. Plato. Plato in Twelve Volumes, Vols. 5 & 6 translated by Paul Shorey. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1969. www.perseus.tufts.edu

Isocrates speaks of the two aspects of education, physical training and philosophy.

[181] οὕτω δὲ τούτων ἐχόντων ὁρῶντές τινες τῶν πολὺ πρὸ ἡμῶν γεγονότων περὶ μὲν τῶν ἄλλων πολλὰς τέχνας συνεστηκυίας, περὶ δὲ τὸ σῶμα καὶ τὴν ψυχὴν οὐδὲν τοιοῦτον συντεταγμένον, εὑρόντες διττὰς ἐπιμελείας κατέλιπον ἡμῖν, περὶ μὲν τὰ σώματα τὴν παιδοτριβικήν, ἧς ἡ γυμναστικὴ μέρος ἐστί, περὶ δὲ τὰς ψυχὰς τὴν φιλοσοφίαν, περὶ ἧς ἐγὼ μέλλω ποιεῖσθαι τοὺς λόγους,

[181] Since this is so, certain of our ancestors, long before our time, seeing that many arts had been devised for other things, while none had been prescribed for the body and for the mind, invented and bequeathed to us two disciplines, physical training for the body, of which gymnastics is a part, and, for the mind, philosophy, which I am going to explain.

Isocrates, Antidosis Isocrates with an English Translation in three volumes, by George Norlin, Ph.D., LL.D. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1980. www.perseus.tufts.edu

EVENTS

Changes to the programme of the Games were inevitable; however, they remained unimportant. Until the end of antiquity, the same events that excited the interest of the spectators continued to be held.

Χρόνος. τὸ δὲ σαφανὲς ἰὼν πόρσω κατέφρασεν, [ἐπῳδ. γ]
ὁπᾷ τὰν πολέμοιο δόσιν
ἀκρόθινα διελὼν ἔθυε καὶ
πενταετηρίδ᾽ ὅπως ἄρα
ἔστασεν ἑορτὰν σὺν Ὀλυμπιάδι πρώτᾳ
νικαφορίαισί τε·
60 τίς δὴ ποταίνιον
ἔλαχε στέφανον
χείρεσσι ποσίν τε καὶ ἅρματι,
ἀγώνιον ἐν δόξᾳ θέμενος
εὖχος, ἔργῳ καθελών;
στάδιον μὲν ἀρίστευσεν, εὐθὺν τόνον [στρ. δ]
65 ποσσὶ τρέχων, παῖς ὁ Λικυμνίου
Οἰωνός· ἷκεν δὲ Μιδέαθεν στρατὸν ἐλαύνων·
ὁ δὲ πάλᾳ κυδαίνων Ἔχεμος Τεγέαν·
Δόρυκλος δ᾽ ἔφερε πυγμᾶς τέλος,
Τίρυνθα ναίων πόλιν·
ἀν᾽ ἵπποισι δὲ τέτρασιν

70 ἀπὸ Μαντινέας Σᾶμος ὁ Ἁλιροθίου· [ἀντ. δ]
ἄκοντι {δὲ} Φράστωρ ἔλασε σκοπόν·
μᾶκος δὲ Νικεὺς ἔδικε πέτρῳ χέρα κυκλώσαις
ὑπὲρ ἁπάντων, καὶ συμμαχία θόρυβον
παραίθυξε μέγαν· ἐν δ᾽ ἕσπερον
ἔφλεξεν εὐώπιδος
75 σελάνας ἐρατὸν φάος.

Time moved forward and told the clear and precise story, how Heracles divided the gifts of war and sacrificed the finest of them, and how he established the four years' festival with the first Olympic games and its victories. Who won the first garland, with the skill of his hands or feet or chariot, setting the boast of victory in his mind and achieving it with his deeds? In the foot race the best at running the straight course with his feet was the son of Licymnius, Oeonus, who had come from Midea at the head of an army. In wrestling, Echemus won glory for Tegea. And the prize in boxing was won by Doryclus, who lived in the city of Tiryns. And in the four-horse chariot the victor was Samos of Mantinea, the son of Halirhothius. Phrastor hit the mark with the javelin. Niceus sent the stone flying from his circling arm beyond all the others, and his fellow soldiers raised a sudden burst of loud cheering. The lovely light of the moon's beautiful face lit up the evening and in the delightful festivities the whole precinct rang with a song in praise of victory.

Pindar, Olympian Ode 10, in honour of Hagesidamos of Epizephyrian Locri, victor in boys’ boxing.

Odes. Pindar. Diane Arnson Svarlien. 1990. www.perseus.tufts.edu

TECHNOLOGY

The complex mechanism of the hippaphesis aroused the interest of visitors to Olympia. Pausanias describes the device upon his arrival at the Hippodrome.

20.10] ὑπερβάλλοντι δὲ ἐκ τοῦ σταδίου, καθότι οἱ Ἑλλανοδίκαι καθέζονται, κατὰ τοῦτο [τὸ] χωρίον ἐς τῶν ἵππων ἀνειμένον τοὺς δρόμους καὶ ἡ ἄφεσίς ἐστι τῶν ἵππων. παρέχεται μὲν οὖν σχῆμα ἡ ἄφεσις κατὰ πρῷραν νεώς, τέτραπται δὲ αὐτῆς τὸ ἔμβολον ἐς τὸν δρόμον: καθότι δὲ τῇ Ἀγνάπτου στοᾷ προσεχής ἐστιν ἡ πρῷρα, κατὰ τοῦτο εὐρεῖα γίνεται, δελφὶς δὲ ἐπὶ κανόνος κατὰ ἄκρον μάλιστα τὸ ἔμβολον πεποίηται χαλκοῦς.
[20.11] ἑκατέρα μὲν δὴ πλευρὰ τῆς ἀφέσεως πλέον ἢ τετρακοσίους πόδας παρέχεται τοῦ μήκους, ᾠκοδόμηται δὲ ἐν αὐταῖς οἰκήματα: ταῦτα [τὰ] κλήρῳ τὰ οἰκήματα διαλαγχάνουσιν οἱ ἐσιόντες ἐς τὸν ἀγῶνα τῶν ἵππων. πρὸ δὲ τῶν ἁρμάτων ἢ καὶ ἵππων τῶν κελήτων, διήκει πρὸ αὐτῶν καλῴδιον ἀντὶ ὕσπληγος: βωμὸς δὲ ὠμῆς πλίνθου τὰ ἐκτὸς κεκονιαμένος ἐπὶ ἑκάστης Ὀλυμπιάδος ποιεῖται κατὰ τὴν πρῷραν μάλιστά που μέσην, ἀετὸς
[20.12] δὲ ἐπὶ τῷ βωμῷ χαλκοῦς κεῖται τὰ πτερὰ ἐπὶ μήκιστον ἐκτείνων. ἀνακινεῖ μὲν δὴ τὸ ἐν τῷ βωμῷ μηχάνημα ὁ τεταγμένος ἐπὶ τῷ δρόμῳ: ἀνακινηθέντος δὲ ὁ μὲν ἐς τὸ ἄνω πεποίηται πηδᾶν ὁ ἀετός, ὡς τοῖς ἥκουσιν ἐπὶ τὴν θέαν γενέσθαι σύνοπτος, ὁ δελφὶς δὲ ἐς ἔδαφος πίπτει.
[20.13] πρῶται μὲν δὴ ἑκατέρωθεν αἱ πρὸς τῇ στοᾷ τῇ Ἀγνάπτου χαλῶσιν ὕσπληγες, καὶ οἱ κατὰ ταύτας ἑστηκότες ἐκθέουσιν ἵπποι πρῶτοι: θέοντές τε δὴ γίνονται κατὰ τοὺς εἰληχότας ἑστάναι τὴν δευτέραν τάξιν, καὶ τηνικαῦτα χαλῶσιν αἱ ὕσπληγες αἱ ἐν τῇ δευτέρᾳ τάξει: διὰ πάντων τε κατὰ τὸν αὐτὸν λόγον συμβαίνει τῶν ἵππων, ἔστ' ἂν ἐξισωθῶσιν ἀλλήλοις κατὰ τῆς πρῴρας τὸ ἔμβολον: τὸ ἀπὸ τούτου δὲ ἤδη καθέστηκεν ἐπίδειξις ἐπιστήμης τε ἡνιόχων καὶ ἵππων ὠκύτητος.
[20.14] τὸ μὲν δὴ ἐξ ἀρχῆς Κλεοίτας ἐστὶν ἄφεσιν μηχανησάμενος, καὶ φρονῆσαί γε ἐπὶ τῷ εὑρήματι, ὡς καὶ ἐπίγραμμα ἐπὶ ἀνδριάντι τῷ Ἀθήνῃσιν ἐπιγράψαι ὃς τὴν ἱππάφεσιν Ὀλυμπίᾳ εὕρατο πρῶτος, τεῦξέ με Κλεοίτας υἱὸς Ἀριστοκλέους:

[20.10] When you have passed beyond the stadium, at the point where the umpires sit, is a place set apart for the horse-races, and also the starting-place for the horses. The starting-place is in the shape of the prow of a ship, and its prow is turned towards the course. At the point where the prow adjoins the porch of Agnaptus it broadens and a bronze dolphin on a rod has been made at the very point of the ram.
[20.11] Each side of the starting-place is more than four hundred feet in length, and in the sides are built stalls. These stalls are assigned by lot to those who enter for the races. Before the chariots or race-horses is stretched a cord as a barrier. An altar of unburnt brick, plastered on the outside, is made at every Festival as near as possible to the centre of the prow,
[20.12] and a bronze eagle stands on the altar with his wings stretched out to the fullest extent. The man appointed to start the racing sets in motion the mechanism in the altar, and then the eagle has been made to jump upwards, so as to become visible to the spectators, while the dolphin falls to the ground.
[20.13] First on either side the barriers are withdrawn by the porch of Agnaptus, and the horses standing thereby run off first. As they run, they reach those to whom the second station has been allotted, and then are withdrawn the barriers at the second station. The same thing happens to all the horses in turn, until at the ram of the prow they are all abreast. After this it is left to the charioteers to display their skill and the horses their speed.
[20.14] It was Cleoetas who originally devised the method of starting, and he appears to have been proud of the discovery, as on the statue at Athens he wrote the inscription: —“Who first invented the method of starting the horses at Olympia, He made me, Cleoetas the son of Aristocles.

Pausanias, VI, 20.10–14 Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. www.perseus.tufts.edu

PRIZES

Lucian of Samosata (2nd c. AD) imagines a conversation between Anacharsis, a Scythian ruler, and the Athenian wise man Solon, in which the two men discuss about the education of young men. One more time, the Greek prudent virtue stands in total contrast to eastern perceptions.

Ἀνάχαρσις: Τὰ δὲ ἆθλα τίνα ὑμῖν ταῦτά ἐστιν;

Σόλων: Ὀλυμπίασι μὲν στέφανος ἐκ κοτίνου, Ἰσθμοῖ δὲ ἐκ πίτυος, ἐν Νεμέᾳ δὲ σελίνων πεπλεγμένος, Πυθοῖ δὲ μῆλα τῶν ἱερῶν τοῦ θεοῦ, παρ᾽ ἡμῖν δὲ τοῖς Παναθηναίοις τὸ ἔλαιον τὸ ἐκ τῆς μορίας. Τί ἐγέλασας, ὦ Ἀνάχαρσι; ἢ διότι μικρά σοι εἶναι ταῦτα δοκεῖ;

Amacharsis: And these prices of yours, what are they?

Solon: At the Olympic games, a wreath made of wild olive, at the Isthmian one of pine, and at the Nemean one of parsley, at the Pythian some of the apples sacred to Apollo, and with us at the Panathenaea, the oil from the holy olive. What made you laugh, Anacharsis''. Because you think these prizes trivial?

Σόλων
ἃ δὲ περὶ τῶν νέων γιγνώσκομεν καὶ ὅπως αὐτοῖς χρώμεθα, ἐπειδὰν πρῶτον ἄρξωνται συνιέναι τε τοῦ βελτίονος καὶ τῷ σώματι ἀνδρίζεσθαι καὶ ὑφίστασθαι τοὺς πόνους, ταῦτα ἤδη σοι διέξειμι, ὡς μάθοις οὗτινος χάριν τὰς ἀσκήσεις ταύτας προτεθείκαμεν αὐτοῖς καὶ διαπονεῖν τὸ σῶμα καταναγκάζομεν, οὐ μόνον ἕνεκα τῶν ἀγώνων, ὅπως τὰ ἆθλα δύναιντο ἀναιρεῖσθαι — ἐπ᾽ ἐκεῖνα μὲν γὰρ ὀλίγοι πάνυ ἐξ ἁπάντων χωροῦσιν — ἀλλὰ μεῖζόν τι ἁπάσῃ τῇ πόλει ἀγαθὸν ἐκ τούτου καὶ αὐτοῖς ἐκείνοις προσκτώμενοι. κοινὸς γάρ τις ἀγὼν ἄλλος ἅπασι τοῖς ἀγαθοῖς πολίταις πρόκειται καὶ στέφανος οὐ πίτυος οὐδὲ κοτίνου ἢ σελίνων, ἀλλ᾽ ὃς ἐν αὑτῷ συλλαβὼν ἔχει τὴν ἀνθρώπου εὐδαιμονίαν, οἷον ἐλευθερίαν λέγω αὐτοῦ τε ἑκάστου ἰδίᾳ καὶ κοινῇ τῆς πατρίδος καὶ πλοῦτον καὶ δόξαν καὶ ἑορτῶν πατρίων ἀπόλαυσιν καὶ οἰκείων σωτηρίαν, καὶ συνόλως τὰ κάλλιστα ὧν ἄν τις εὔξαιτο γενέσθαι οἱ παρὰ τῶν θεῶν. Ταῦτα πάντα τῷ στεφάνῳ ὅν φημι συναναπέπλεκται καὶ ἐκ τοῦ ἀγῶνος ἐκείνου περιγίγνεται ἐφ᾽ ὃν αἱ ἀσκήσεις αὗται καὶ οἱ πόνοι ἄγουσιν.

Solon
And I shall now tell you what we think about our young men, and how we deal with them from the time when they begin to know good from bad, to be physically mature, and to bear hardships, in order that you may learn why we prescribe these exercises for them and compel them to train their bodies. It is not simply on account of the contests, in order that they may be able to take the prizes —very few out of the entire number have the capacity for that— but because we seek a certain greater good from it for the entire state and for the young men themselves. There is another competition which is open to all good citizens in common, and a wreath that is not made of pine or olive or parsley, but contains in itself all human felicity, —that is to say, freedom for each individual singly and for the state in general, wealth, glory, enjoyment of ancestral feast-days, safety for one's family, and in short, the fairest blessings that one could pray to receive from the gods. All these things are interwoven in the wreath that I speak of and accrue from the contest to which these exercises and hardships lead.

Lucian, with an English Translation by A. M. HARMON of Yale University in Eight Volumes IV. London, William Heinemann Ltd., Cambridge MA, Harvard University Press, 1961

The Athenian orator Aeschines (4th c. BC) talks about the incommensurable moral value of the wreath.

Οἴεσθ᾽ ἄν ποτε, ὦ ἄνδρες Ἀθηναῖοι, ἐθελῆσαί τινα ἐπασκεῖν εἰς τὰ Ὀλύμπια, ἢ ἄλλον τινὰ τῶν στεφανιτῶν ἀγώνων, παγκράτιον ἢ καὶ ἄλλο τι τῶν βαρυτέρων ἄθλων, εἰ ὁ στέφανος ἐδίδοτο μὴ τῷ κρατίστῳ, ἀλλὰ τῷ διαπραξαμένῳ; οὐδεὶς ἄν ποτ᾽ ἠθέλησεν ἐπασκεῖν. [180] Νῦν δ᾽ οἶμαι διὰ τὸ σπάνιον καὶ περιμάχητον καὶ τὸ καλὸν καὶ τὸ ἀείμνηστον ἐκ τῆς νίκης ἐθέλουσίν τινες τὰ σώματα παραθέμενοι καὶ τὰς μεγίστας ταλαιπωρίας διακινδυνεύειν.

[179] Do you think, fellow citizens, that any man would ever have been willing to train for the pancratium or any other of the harder contests in the Olympic games, or any of the other games that confer a crown, if the crown were given, not to the best man, but to the man who had successfully intrigued for it? No man would ever have been willing.
[180] But as it is, because the reward is rare, I believe, and because of the competition and the honor, and the undying fame that victory brings, men are willing to risk their bodies, and at the cost of the most severe discipline to carry the struggle to the end.

Aeschines, Against Ctesiphon. Aeschines with an English translation by Charles Darwin Adams, Ph.D. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1919. www.perseus.tufts.edu

The belief that the wreath of victory in the Games signifies honour not just for the athlete himself, but also for his hometown permeates most of Pindar’s verses.

Ὑψηλᾶν ἀρετᾶν καὶ στεφάνων ἄωτον γλυκύν [στρ. α]
τῶν Οὐλυμπίᾳ, Ὠκεανοῦ θύγατερ, καρδίᾳ γελανεῖ
ἀκαμαντόποδός τ᾽ ἀπήνας δέκευ Ψαύμιός τε δῶρα·

ὃς τὰν σὰν πόλιν αὔξων, Καμάρινα, λαοτρόφον, [ἀντ. α]
5 βωμοὺς ἓξ διδύμους ἐγέραρεν ἑορταῖς θεῶν μεγίσταις
ὑπὸ βουθυσίαις ἀέθλων τε πεμπαμέροις ἁμίλλαις,
ἵπποις ἡμιόνοις τε μοναμπυκίᾳ τε. τὶν δὲ κῦδος ἁβρόν [ἐπῳδ. α]

Daughter of Ocean, with a smiling heart receive the sweet bloom of lofty excellence and Olympian garlands, the gifts of Psaumis and of his mule car team with untiring feet.

Psaumis who, exalting your city, Camarina, which cares for its people, honoured the six double altars, at the greatest festivals of the gods, with the sacrifice of oxen and in contests on the fifth day, contests of horse teams, and mule teams, and of riding the single horse. To you he has dedicated rich renown by his victory.

Pindar, Olympian Ode 5, in honour of Psaumis of Camarina, victor in a chariot race for mules.

ἦν δ᾽ ἐσορᾶν καλός, ἔργῳ τ᾽ οὐ κατὰ εἶδος ἐλέγχων [ἐπῳδ. α]
20 ἐξένεπε κρατέων
πάλᾳ δολιχήρετμον Αἴγιναν πάτραν·
ἔνθα σώτειρα Διὸς ξενίου
πάρεδρος ἀσκεῖται Θέμις

He was beautiful to look at, and his deeds did not belie his beauty when by his victory in wrestling he had Aegina with her long oars proclaimed as his fatherland. There the saviour Themis, seated beside Zeus the god of hospitality, is honored more than among all other men.

Pindar, Olympian Ode 8, in honour of Alcimedon of Aegina, victor in boys’ wrestling

Odes. Pindar. Diane Arnson Svarlien. 1990. www.perseus.tufts.edu

And since there was a mundane aspect in the Olympic Games as well …

Ἀλλὰ γίνεταί τινα ἀηδῆ καὶ χαλεπὰ ἐν τῷ βίῳ. — ἐν Ὀλυμπίᾳ δ᾽ οὐ γίνεται; οὐ καυματίζεσθε; οὐ στενοχωρεῖσθε; οὐ κακῶς λούεσθε; οὐ καταβρέχεσθε, ὅταν βρέχῃ; θορύβου δὲ καὶ βοῆς καὶ τῶν ἄλλων χαλεπῶν οὐκ ἀπολαύετε; [27] ἀλλ᾽ οἶμαι ὅτι ταῦτα πάντα ἀντιτιθέντες πρὸς τὸ ἀξιόλογον τῆς θέας φέρετε καὶ ἀνέχεσθε.

"But there are in life some things unpleasant and difficult". And are there none at Olympia? Are you not heated? Are you not crowded? Are you not without good conveniences for bathing? Are you not wet through when it happens to rain? Do you not have uproar, and noise, and other disagreeable circumstances? But, I suppose, by comparing all these with the merit of the spectacle, you support and endure them.

Epictetus, Discourses, Book I, Of Providence, 1.6.26–28

The Works of Epictetus: His Discourses, in Four Books, the Enchiridion, and Fragments. Epictetus. Thomas Wentworth Higginson. translator. New York. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1890. www.perseus.tufts.edu

Ἐς αὐτὰ ἥκεις Ὀλύμπια καὶ τῶν ἐν Ὀλυμπίᾳ τὸ κάλλιστον, τουτὶ γὰρ δὴ ἀνδρῶν τὸ παγκράτιον, στεφανοῦται δὲ αὐτὸ Ἀρριχίων ἐπαποθανὼν τῇ νίκῃ [...] βοῶσι γοῦν ἀναπηδήσαντες τῶν θάκων καὶ οἱ μὲν τὼ χεῖρε ἀνασείουσιν, οἱ δὲ τὴν ἐσθῆτα, οἱ δὲ αἴρονται ἀπὸ τῆς γῆς, οἱ δὲ τοῖς πλησίον ἱλαρὸν προσπαλαίουσι.

You have come to the Olympic games themselves and to the noblest of the contests held at Olympia; for this is the pancratium of men. Arrichion is being crowned for winning this event, having died just after his victory, […] at any rate the spectators jump up from their seats and shout, some wave their hands, some their garments, some leap from the ground, and some grapple with their neighbours for joy.

Philostratus, Images Book 2.6

Elder Philostratus, Younger Philostratus, Callistratus. Translated by Fairbanks, Arthur. Loeb Classical Library Volume 256. London: William Heinemann, 1931. www.theoi.com

Pythagoras compared human life to the Olympic Games. “Some people come to compete”, he said, “others come to trade their merchandise and others come to watch the glorious spectacle”. (Rangos, 2013, p. 54)